1. Introduction

Habitat and Distribution, Native Continent

Laccosperma secundiflorum is the most widespread and economically significant rattan in Africa, distributed from Senegal and Guinea in the west through the entire Guinea-Congolian forest zone to Uganda and western Tanzania in the east, and south to Angola. This remarkable climbing palm inhabits diverse forest types from sea level to 1,500 meters elevation, including evergreen rainforest, semi-deciduous forest, gallery forest, and even forest-savanna transitions. It thrives in areas with annual rainfall from 1,200-4,000mm, showing exceptional ecological plasticity. The species is particularly abundant in secondary forests and forest gaps, where its robust growth and climbing ability provide competitive advantages. L. secundiflorum often forms dense populations that have supported commercial rattan industries for centuries, particularly in West Africa.

Taxonomic Classification and Scientific Classification

Synonyms

• Calamus secundiflorus P.Beauv. (basionym, 1805)
• Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum (P.Beauv.) G.Mann & H.Wendl. (1864)
• Neoancistrophyllum secundiflorum (P.Beauv.) Rauschert
• Ancistrophyllum majus Burret
• Calamus ancistrophyllus Becc.

Common Names

• English: Large-fruited rattan, African rattan palm
• French: Rotin africain
• Liberia: Kpokolo
• Ghana (Twi): Mmaw
• Nigeria (Yoruba): Ikpin
• Cameroon: Nko/Nkaw
• Gabon: Kaka
• Hundreds of local names across Africa

Expansion in the World

L. secundiflorum cultivation status:

• Botanical gardens across tropical Africa
• Research stations in Ghana, Cameroon, Nigeria
• Small-scale cultivation trials ongoing
• Wild harvesting still predominant
• International trade in canes significant
• Conservation concern in some regions
• IUCN Red List status: Least Concern (but locally threatened)

Despite its economic importance, formal cultivation remains limited with continued reliance on wild stocks.

2. Biology and Physiology

Morphology

Growth Form

L. secundiflorum is a robust, clustering climber reaching 50-100 meters into the forest canopy, making it one of the longest climbing palms in Africa. Multiple stems emerge from substantial basal clumps, each stem 3-6cm diameter (up to 10cm with sheaths). The canes are the thickest and strongest among African rattans, highly valued for furniture frames and construction. Internodes are 20-40cm long, smooth and polished when mature.

Leaves

The pinnate leaves are the largest in the genus, 2-4 meters long including the formidable petiole. The rachis extends into a powerful cirrus 1-2 meters long, armed with robust, reflexed grappling hooks arranged in distinctive whorls of 3-5. Leaflets number 40-80 per side, arranged regularly in one plane (hence "secundiflorum"), each 20-45cm long and 3-6cm wide. They are dark glossy green above, paler below with prominent veins.

Climbing Apparatus

This species employs the most effective climbing system among African palms:

• Powerful cirri with large hooks
• Knee spines in distinctive clusters
• Flagella up to 5 meters long
• Flexible stems with tenacious grip
• Secondary branches from upper nodes

Armature

The leaf sheaths bear scattered to whorled black spines 2-5cm long, broad-based and extremely sharp. The knee (junction of sheath and petiole) has characteristic clustered spines that aid climbing and provide defense. Even the inflorescence bracts are armed.

Flower Systems

Dioecious with massive inflorescences. Male inflorescences are more branched with thousands of small cream flowers producing copious pollen. Female inflorescences are stouter, developing into the characteristic flagella whether fertilized or not. The name "secundiflorum" originally referred to the one-sided flower arrangement. Flowering is seasonal, typically at the transition between wet and dry seasons.

Life Cycle

L. secundiflorum has an extended life cycle befitting its size:

• Germination to Seedling (0-3 years): Slow establishment
• Juvenile Phase (3-12 years): Rosette growth, stem initiation
• Climbing Phase (12-30 years): Rapid vertical growth
• Adult Phase (30-100+ years): Canopy emergence, regular fruiting
• Longevity: Individual stems 40-60 years, clumps centuries
• First flowering at 20-30 years when stems reach 20-30 meters

Specific Adaptations to Climate Conditions

• Ecological Plasticity: Thrives in various forest types
• Rapid Gap Colonization: Exploits disturbance
• Powerful Climbing: Reaches emergent layer
• Clump Regeneration: Continuous stem production
• Drought Tolerance: Better than other African rattans
• Fire Recovery: Resprouts after ground fires

3. Reproduction and Propagation

Seed Reproduction

Seed Morphology and Diversity

L. secundiflorum produces the largest fruits among African rattans, ovoid to ellipsoid, 2-3.5cm long and 1.5-2.5cm wide. Fruits are covered in 15-18 vertical rows of glossy, brown to reddish scales. The sarcotesta is thick and sweet-sour, attracting numerous dispersers including primates, birds, and rodents. Seeds are large (1.5-2.5cm), ovoid with the characteristic pitted surface. Fresh seed weight is 3-6 grams. Genetic studies show high diversity across populations.

Detailed Seed Collection and Viability Testing

Pre-germination Treatments

Step-by-step Germination Techniques

1. Medium: 40% sand, 30% forest soil, 20% compost, 10% rice hulls
2. Container: Large pots (30cm+) or raised beds
3. Sowing: Plant 3-4cm deep
4. Temperature: 26-32°C (79-90°F) optimal
5. Humidity: 80-90% constant
6. Shade: 80-90% essential
7. Moisture: Never dry but well-drained

Germination Difficulty

Moderate with fresh seeds:

• Scarification critical
• Temperature consistency important
• Fungal problems common
• Patience required

Germination Time

• First germination: 30-90 days
• Peak germination: 90-180 days
• Complete process: up to 365 days
• Success rate: 80-95% (fresh scarified)

Seedling Care and Early Development

Year 1:

• Very slow growth normal
• Maintain high humidity
• Deep shade critical
• No fertilization

Years 2-4:

• Begin light monthly feeding
• First compound leaves appear
• Maintain 80% shade
• Watch for pests

Years 5-8:

• Stem elongation begins
• Provide climbing support
• Increase fertilization
• Can reduce shade to 70%

Advanced Germination Techniques

Hormonal Treatments for Germination Enhancement

4. Cultivation Requirements

Light Requirements

Species-specific Light Tolerance Ranges

• Seedlings (0-4 years): 50-300 μmol/m²/s (85-95% shade)
• Juveniles (4-12 years): 300-800 μmol/m²/s (70-80% shade)
• Climbing phase: 800-1800 μmol/m²/s (40-60% shade)
• Adults: Up to full sun tolerance in canopy

More light-tolerant than L. acutiflorum once established.

Seasonal Light Variations and Management

• Tolerates seasonal changes well
• Protect seedlings always
• Adults adapt to canopy conditions
• Gradual acclimation critical

Artificial Lighting for Indoor Cultivation

• Low light for seedlings
• Increase with age
• 12-14 hour photoperiod
• 100-500 foot-candles range

Temperature and Humidity Management

Optimal Temperature Ranges

• Ideal: 25-32°C (77-90°F)
• Acceptable: 18-38°C (64-100°F)
• Minimum survival: 12°C (54°F)
• Maximum tolerance: 42°C (108°F)
• Heat tolerant when mature

Cold Tolerance Thresholds

• Damage begins: 15°C (59°F)
• Severe damage: 12°C (54°F)
• Fatal: 8°C (46°F)
• Slightly hardier than congeners

Hardiness Zone Maps

• USDA Zones: 10a-11
• Marginal in 9b
• Sunset Zones: 22-24
• European: H2-H1a

Humidity Requirements and Modification

• Optimal: 70-85%
• Minimum tolerable: 60%
• Less critical when established
• Dry season tolerance

Soil and Nutrition

Ideal Soil Composition and pH

Nutrient Requirements Through Growth Stages

Seedlings (0-4 years):

• Light feeding from year 2
• 1/4 strength monthly
• Organic preferred

Juveniles (4-12 years):

• NPK ratio: 8-4-6
• Monthly application
• Increasing rates

Adults (12+ years):

• NPK ratio: 20-10-15
• Very heavy feeder
• Weekly in growth season

Organic vs. Synthetic Fertilization

Traditional Organic:

• Rotted palm fronds
• Livestock manure
• Kitchen waste compost
• Palm wine residue

Modern Approach:

• Controlled-release base
• Liquid supplements
• Micronutrient sprays
• High nitrogen critical

Micronutrient Deficiencies and Corrections

• Magnesium: Most common
• Iron: In calcareous soils
• Manganese: Occasional
• Boron: Rare but serious

Water Management

Irrigation Frequency and Methodology

• High water demand
• Daily in dry season
• Flood irrigation acceptable
• Deep watering preferred

Drought Tolerance Assessment

• Moderate drought tolerance
• Better than other African rattans
• Survives dry seasons
• Quick recovery

Water Quality Considerations

• Tolerates various sources
• Not salt sensitive
• pH 5.5-7.5 acceptable
• River water ideal

Drainage Requirements

• Good drainage preferred
• Tolerates periodic flooding
• Avoid permanent waterlogging
• Natural hydrology best

5. Diseases and Pests

Common Problems in Growing

• Stem borers: Major economic pest
• Leaf rollers: Aesthetic damage
• Scale insects: Young growth
• Bush pig damage: To clumps

Identification of Diseases and Pests

Major Pests:

• Rattan weevil (Rhynchophorus): Devastating
• Stem borers (various): Economic loss
• Leaf-eating caterpillars: Defoliation
• Rodents: Seed and shoot damage

Diseases:

• Ganoderma rot: Older clumps
• Bud rot: In wet conditions
• Leaf blight: Minor issue
• Generally robust health

Environmental and Chemical Protection Methods

Traditional Protection:

• Wood ash applications
• Neem preparations
• Chili pepper sprays
• Companion planting

Modern IPM:

• Pheromone traps for weevils
• Biological controls
• Systemic insecticides when necessary
• Regular monitoring essential

6. Indoor Palm Growing

Specific Care in Housing Conditions

Commercial Production:

• Large tropical greenhouses
• Strong support systems
• Climate control essential
• Research purposes mainly

Replanting and Wintering

Container Limitations:

• Quickly outgrows pots
• Annual repotting young plants
• Massive containers needed
• Ground planting preferred

Winter Management:

• Maintain above 15°C (59°F)
• Reduce watering 30%
• High humidity still needed
• Growth slows significantly

7. Landscape and Outdoor Cultivation

Economic Importance

• Major rattan trade commodity
• Furniture industry backbone
• Local craft traditions
• Significant rural income

Landscape Applications

• Forest restoration
• Agroforestry systems
• Living fences (managed)
• Commercial plantations

8. Cold Climate Cultivation Strategies

Cold Hardiness

Limited cold tolerance despite wide distribution.

Winter Protection

• Not viable below Zone 10a
• Greenhouse only in temperate zones
• Minimum 15°C (59°F) critical

Hardiness Zone

• USDA 10a-11 required
• Zone 9b impossible
• Tropical conditions needed

Winter Protection Systems and Materials

• Professional greenhouses only
• Full climate control
• Not for amateur cultivation
• Research facilities appropriate

Establishment and Maintenance in Landscapes

Planting Techniques for Success

Site Selection:

• Forest or forest edge
• Large support trees
• River valleys ideal
• Commercial considerations

Agroforestry Integration:

• With timber trees
• Cocoa plantations
• Oil palm edges
• Mixed farming systems

Establishment:

• Clear competing vegetation
• Rich planting holes
• Multiple stems per station
• Immediate support

Long-term Maintenance Schedules

Regular Management:

• Monthly growth monitoring
• Quarterly fertilization
• Annual thinning
• Pest surveillance

Harvest Rotation:

• First harvest: 15-20 years
• Selective cutting only
• 5-7 year re-harvest
• Sustainable yields

Traditional Knowledge:

• Community management
• Seasonal restrictions
• Quality grading
• Processing methods